Part 2: Language Learning Processes in Childhood | The "Critical Period Hypothesis"

Part 2 of this post delves further into Annamarie Pinter’s research on language acquisition and summarises some of the key points in the “critical period hypothesis” debate. Here we consider the possible implications for practitioners delivering mainstream and intervention learning.

The argument for why second language acquisition may be better suited to younger learners:

• The “critical period hypothesis” has, in the past, suggested that acquisition of a second language is most efficient before the age of 9;

• studied show younger learners generally having an advantage when it comes to ultimate attainment; and according to Bialystok and Hakuta (1999), cognitive capacities such as memory and recall, both of which are crucial in language learning, deteriorate gradually across the lifespan, suggesting the same process for language abilities as a person gets older.

Conversely, why second language acquisition may be easier for older learners:

• By their teenage years, learners have developed abstract thinking capabilities and have well-established metacognitive skills. These skills help students to be in a constant state of acquiring language, helping them to do so across their lifespan. (Berman 2007);

• this superior cognitive development of older learners also allows them to take greater advantage of explicit teaching processes in the classroom. In contrast, implicit learning is more favourable for young learners. Implicit learning improves with practice but occurs slowly and requires massive amounts of exposure (Muñoz 2006: 32); as a result older learners progress faster initially, due to their superior strategies, cognitive capacities and strong motivation.

What other factors can support effective language learning?

• Supportive contexts, opportunities to practise, student motivation and the quality of formal instruction all make a difference to a learner’s ability to learn a new language.

• Bialystok and Hakuta (1999) argue that in addition to age, cognitive factors are also crucially important in second language learning. In particular, literacy allows certain types of instruction for older learners that younger learners have no access to.

Questions and considerations for whole school systems, policy and leadership:

• Secondary schools should consider the impact of their whole school literacy strategy. Does this support the basic literacy development of older learners and those learning a second language?

• As a school, how much value is placed on literacy and language proficiency? What strategies does your school have in place to capitalise upon the motivation of older EAL learners to develop their second language?

• Are teachers of all subjects explicitly teaching the necessary academic language for progress within that subject? Are good models of English available consistently across the school and used to support judgements for the setting and grouping of EAL learners?

Questions for EAL teachers/coordinators to consider:

• How many social opportunities are offered to EAL students to develop their language in safe and supportive contexts?

• To what extent is the progress of EAL students celebrated and shared in order to capitalise on student motivation to learn the language?

• Do all teachers know what good “formal instruction” looks like when communicating to EAL students? If not, what kind of CPD or teacher support might be appropriate for your school?

What can classroom teachers do to improve outcomes in relation to this information?

• Consider how often you are explicitly teaching academic language to your students. When do you do this, before a unit or during it? Is this academic language revisited throughout a unit? Consider how using a “flipped classroom” model for homework could support this.

• How many opportunities are given for students to discuss ideas with a partner or group? Could some of the different group work ideas below offer an opportunity for students to practise using academic language for your subject in a safe context?

• Are you consistently modelling good use of language with your students? Are you supporting students to self correct in a supportive way when they make errors with their language? Be aware of the quality of language being used in your classroom and consider how this could be raised.

Resource to support this:

Group work examples

This information is summarised from, “Language Learning Processes in Childhood”, Annamaria Pinter, Palgrave Macmillan 2011.